Teaching Principles of the Curriculum Resource

 The relevance of and the teaching principles used in the Gibbons' (2015) curriculum resource, will be viewed.

According to Nation & Macalister (2009), when designing a language teaching curriculum, principles that are based on research and theory should be addressed. The principles should allow for flexibility according to the learning conditions.

Nation (2007) proposes that four strands for learning language should be included in a language learning course and given equal time, with every activity including one of the four strands. Gibbons' (2015) book supports the inclusion of activities that give equal time to the first two strands. The third strand of language-focused learning and fourth strand of fluency proposed by Nation (2007), are incorporated in the activities of the first two strands in Gibbons' (2015) book.

The first strand Nation (2007) proposes is meaning-focused input, or listening and reading. This includes activities using a large quantity of familiar high interest texts, shared reading of a text and viewing films on the topic. This aspect is supported by Krashen’s (1985) input theory which proposes the importance of comprehensible input for language learning. 

The second strand according to Nation (2007) is meaning-focused output or speaking and writing, which includes activities such as talking in conversations and writing a letter. The activities involve talking and writing about topics of high interest and familiar to the learners. This strand is supported by Swain’s (1985, as cited in Nation, 2007, p. 5)) output hypothesis whereby he suggests, according to Nation (2007), “functions for output: (1) the noticing/triggering function, (2) the hypothesis testing function and (3) the metalinguistic (reflective) function,” language focused learning and fluency development. The noticing function is where the learner realises, they have a gap in their knowledge when producing language and may try to guess or seek outside help to find the knowledge. Swain’s second function (1985,as cited in Nation, 2007) is testing the hypothesis, whereby the learner tests his language knowledge and where teachers can provide corrective feedback. The metalinguistic function is where the learner collaborates with others to solve problems such as reconstructing text. Gibbons (2015) activities for speaking and writing include meaning focused ideas using high interest topics.

The third strand Nation (2007, p. 6) proposes is language-focused learning, or form-focused instruction. This involves explicit instruction on language features spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse. The activities include learning vocabulary from cards, translation and drills. In Gibbons' (2015) book there are form focused activities included to focus on specific language features, within the context of what is being within the topic.

The fourth strand proposed by Nation (2007) is the fluency development of listening, speaking, reading and writing. According to Nation (2007, p. 7), the activities should be familiar and include “speed reading, skimming and scanning, repeated reading, 4/3/2, repeated retelling, ten-minute writing and listening to easy stories.” Studies of the 4/3/2 technique according to Nation (2007, p. 8) which involves “the same talk repeated to different listeners in a decreasing time frame (four minutes, then three minutes, then two), have shown increases in fluency during the task, but also surprisingly increases grammatical accuracy and grammatical complexity.” The importance of fluency for language acquisition is also addressed by Gibbons (2015) and will be explored further in the blog.

The ideas and activities proposed by Gibbons (2015) in her book largely supports Nation's (2007) research on language acquisition, which includes choosing familiar, high interest texts for students to assist with language learning for the four strands.

Ellis (2005, as cited in Nation, 2007) supports Nations' (2007) balance of strands by including in his principles for language learning, that instruction needs to focus on both meaning and form.

Nation’s (2007) ten pedagogical principles include:

  • To provide large quantities of comprehensible input through listening and reading such as interaction through using the internet.
  •  Add deliberate comprehensible input learning such as ensuring students have plenty of opportunity to  talk and listen to the teacher reading. Include activities such as  writing words on the board as students hear a word and allowing students to analyses new vocabulary before reading.
  • Provide communicative activities such as role plays. 
  • Create cooperative interaction by doing group work activities such as information gap exercises. 
  • Teach spelling patterns, sounds, vocabulary, grammar and discourse. 
  • Include strategies for students to help with language learning such as using a dictionary. 
  • Create fluency activities in the four strands proposed by Nation (2007). 
  • Create an equal balance of the four strands. 
  • Focus on high frequency items and provide plenty of practice in those skills. 
  • Finally, as Nation (2007, p. 11) proposes "use analysis, monitoring and assessment to help address learners' language and communication needs."

Following Nations' (2007) ten pedagogical principles Nation and Macalister (2009) suggested twenty principles of language learning which can be used to help design a language course. According to Nation and Macalister (2009), the principles can be altered as theory and research provides new information on language learning. Nation and Macalister (2009) placed the twenty principles into three groups. A summary of these groups of principles is as follows:

The first group of principles applies to content and sequencing. According to Nation and Macalister (2009), a language course should include items that occur frequently in language, followed by low frequency items once these have been learnt. According to Nation and Macalister (2009, p. 47), the first language can help “at all levels within the language, with pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and discourse”, but particularly with vocabulary. Gibbons (2015) includes activities that encourage using frequently used and essential vocabulary and grammatical forms.

The second group of principles is the format and presentation. According to Nation and Macalister, 2009), the learners need to be motivated to learn by providing them with interesting and relevant content. Learners should be given some control over what they are learning by giving them choice and by providing individual and achievable goals. According to Nation and Macalister (2009), the teacher should spend equal time on meaning or focused input, language-focused learning, meaning-focused output and fluency activities. Gibbons' (2015) advocates uses students' prior knowledge and making the activities relevant to them.

Learners should be given the opportunity to produce language as well, through speaking and writing where according to Swain (1985, as cited in Nation & Macalaster, 2009, p. 57) learners move “from a purely semantic analysis of the language to a syntactic analysis of it.” Nation and Macalister (2009) suggest using language focused learning of vocabulary, grammar and discourse should be included to support meaning-focused learning including activities such as dictation, learning vocabulary on cards and re-arranging words in sentences in the right order. The target language should be the main language used. 

Students should be given the opportunity to do activities that suit their individual learning style. As Nation and Macalister (2009, p. 64) state, “ an effectively designed language course allows for these individual differences and provides choices and flexibility in the way activities can be done.” The choices can include group size, speed, medium and use of first language. Gibbons (2015) encourages teachers to cater for the individual language learning and cultural needs of the students, by providing choice and flexibility.

The third group of principles applies to the monitoring and assessment and evaluation. According to Nation and Macalister (2009), learners should be given helpful and positive feedback and monitor their own learning. 

Gibbons' (2015) book addresses many of the principles of language learning proposed by Nation (2007) and by Nation and Macalister (2009) including providing activities that promote comprehensible input, such as talking and listening and communicative activities such as roles plays. Gibbons' (2015) book also includes group cooperative activities such as information gap exercises and the inclusion of a focus on spelling and form when necessary. Fluency and a balance of the four strands are also included in Gibbons' (2015) book.

Locke (2013) proposed that for effective language learning, the teacher should integrate language activities into the rest of the curriculum, to teach topics and to target particular skills. Locke (2013) also suggested that an initial assessment of the students language needs should be conducted and then assess progress through ongoing assessment. According to Lock (2013, p.31) “children need to establish a skill, consolidate it, and generalise it; they need to become fluent in it.” through practice. These ideas proposed by Locke (2013) are utilised in Gibbons' (2015) book, where the language activities that she suggests are embedded into the curriculum in the regular classroom and through scaffolding, the language skill is consolidated, leading to independence and fluency..

According to Bax (2003) the teacher should identify the main aspects of the learning context, including the local culture first, to gain an understanding of the learning needs of the students. After this has been done, the teacher identifies a suitable approach including, whether to focus on grammar, oral communication or group work.

There needs to be a sociocultural focus to the approach English language teaching, which includes the social, spiritual and emotional aspects of the individual, using local materials.

The activities suggested by Gibbons (2015) in her book are relevant for language teaching of EAL/D students in schools. The problems with administration of the activities in a mainstream classroom and the factors that constrict the application of the activities in a school setting will be addressed later in the blog.

More information on what Communicative Language Theory is and Communicative Competence will be explored next.


Bax, S. (2003). The end of CLT: A context approach to language teaching. ELT Journal, 57(3), 278-287.

Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of instructed language learning. System, 33(2), 209-224.

Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.

Locke, A. (2013). Teaching speaking and listening: One step at a time. Bloomsbury.

Nation, P. (2007). The four strands. International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 2-13.

Nation, I.S., & Macalister, J. (2009). Language curriculum design. Routledge.




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